REVISION Notes Class 8 SST Exam

Revision Notes for Class 8 SST Exam

Women, Caste and Reform

Status of Women:

Two hundred years ago, the situation of women was altogether different compared to in the modern times. The practice of child marriage was rampant. Both Hindu and Muslim men could marry more than one wife. Burning of a widow on her husband’s pyre was a gory practice in many parts of India. This was called the sati system. A widow who died in this manner was praised as a woman of high virtues. Women did not have the right to property. Most of the women had no access to education.

Status of Shudras:

People were divided along the caste lines. Brahmans and Kshatriyas were considered as the upper castes. Traders and moneylenders were placed after them. Peasants and artisans came at the third level. People who did the so called “dirty” jobs were called the shudras. People at the bottom of this hierarchy were treated as “untouchable”. They could not enter temples, nor take water from wells (used by upper castes), bathe in ponds which were meant for the upper castes.

Working Towards Change

Effect of Print Technology: From the early nineteenth century, books, newspapers, magazines, leaflets and pamphlets began to be printed in India. Printing enhanced the access of knowledge to the masses because printed material was much cheaper than manuscripts. Ordinary people could now read various texts and many of them could write to express their ideas in their own languages. People could debate all kinds of issues; like social, political, economic and religious. Such discussions could reach out to a wider public and could bring social change.

Debates about social reforms were usually initiated by various Indian reformers and reform groups.

Raja Rammohun Roy (1772-1833):

Raja Rammohun Roy was a pioneer social reformer. He founded the Brahmo Sabha in Calcutta. Later, it came to be known as the Brahmo Samaj. He thought that unjust practices should be done away with and the society should be changed for a better future. He promoted women’s education. He began a campaign against the practice of sati. He quoted ancient texts to develop his arguments so that people could listen. It was because of Rammohun Roy’s efforts that the British banned the practice of sati in 1829.

Ishwarchandra Vidyasagar:

Ishwarchandra Vidyasagar was also from Bengal. He also used ancient texts to convince people against social evils. He worked towards widow remarriage. Based on his suggestions, the British officials passed the widow remarriage law in 1856.

By the second half of the nineteenth century, the widow remarriage movement spread to other parts of the country. Veerasalingam Pantulu was a reformer in the Telugu-speaking areas of the Madras Presidency. He formed an association for widow remarriage. Many young intellectuals in Bombay also worked for the same cause. Swami Dayanand Saraswati also supported widow remarriage. He founded the Arya Samaj.

In spite of all these efforts the number of widow remarriage was quite low. Those; who married often faced problems as they were not accepted by the society.

Girls begin going to school

Many reformers promoted girls’ education as a means to improve the condition of women. Vidyasagar set up schools for girls in Calcutta. Many other reformers set up schools for girls in Bombay.

Initially, people were skeptical about girls’ school. They thought that education would pollute the minds of the girls. They also feared the schools would take away the girls from home and away from their domestic duties.

Throughout the nineteenth century, most educated women were taught at home by liberal men in their families. Some of the women taught themselves as well.

In the latter part of the nineteenth century, the Arya Samaj established girls’ schoosl in Punjab. Similarly, Jyotirao Phule established girls’ schools in Maharashtra.

In North India, Muslim women from aristocratic families learnt to read the Koran in Arabic. For them, women used to come home to teach. Mumtaz Ali was among the social reformers who interpreted the verses from the Koran to argue for women’s education.

From the early twentieth century, some Muslim women played important role in women’s education. The Begums of Bhopal; for example; founded primary schools for girls at Aligarh. Begum Rokeya Sakhawat Hossain started schools for Muslim girls in Patna and Calcutta.

By the 1880s, Indian women began to enter universities. Some of them became doctors, some became teachers. Many women became writers and published their critical views on the status women in society.

Tarabai Shinde was from Poona. She got education at home. She had authored a book, Stripurushtulna which means ‘A Comparison between Women and Men’. She criticized the social differences based on gender; in her book.

Pandit Ramabai was a great scholar of Sanskrit. She wrote about the miserable lives of upper caste Hindu women. She founded a widows’ home at Poona. Widows who had been badly treated by their husbands’ families were provided shelter at the widows’ home. They were also trained so that they could sustain themselves economically.

From the early twentieth century, women began to form political pressure groups. They worked for female suffrage, and health and education for women. From the 1920s, some of them also joined different nationalist and socialist movements.

Nationalist leaders; like Jawaharlal Nehru and Subhas Chandra Bose supported the demands for greater equality and freedom for women. They assured of universal adult franchise after the independence.

Law against child marriage: Child marriage was rampant in the society. Many Indian legislators in the Central Legislative Assembly worked towards making a law to prevent this practice. The Child Marriage Restraint Act was passed in 1929. The minimum age for marriage was fixed at 18 for men and 16 for women. This was subsequently amended to 21 for men and 18 for women.

CASTE AND SOCIAL REFORM

Raja Rammohun Roy quoted the ancient Buddhist text to criticize the caste system. Prarthana Samaj followed the Bhakti tradition which believed in spiritual equality of all castes. The Paramhans Mandali was founded in Bombay in 1840 to work for the abolition of caste. Most of these reformers and members of these associations were from upper castes. They usually violated caste taboos regarding food and touch in secret meetings.

During nineteenth century, Christian missionaries started setting up schools for tribal groups and lower caste children. Education gave them a tool to change their world. At the same time, many poor began to migrate to cities in search of jobs. Some also went to work in plantations in Assam, Mauritius, Trinidad and Indonesia. Work in the new locations gave them an opportunity to get rid of the oppression which they suffered at the hands of upper-caste people back in their villages.

There were other job opportunities as well. For example; the army offered many opportunities. The father of B R Ambedkar was a teacher at an army school. Ambedkar belonged to the Mahar caste; an untouchable caste in Maharashtra.

By the second half of the nineteenth century, people from the Non-Brahman castes also began to organize movements against caste discrimination.

The Satnami movement in Central India was founded by Ghasidas. He worked among the leatherworkers and organized a movement to improve their social status.

Haridas Thakur’s Matua sect worked in eastern Bengal. He worked among the Chandala cultivators.

Shri Naryana Guru was a guru from Ezhava caste in the modern day Kerala. He argued against unequal treatment of people on the basis of caste. He believed that all human beings belonged to the same caste.

Gulamgiri

Jyotirao Phule was one of the most vocal amongst the low caste leaders. He was born in 1827. He studied in Christian missionary school. He attacked the Brahmans’ claim to superiority. He argued that the Aryans were foreigners who subjugated the true children of the country. He said that the upper caste had no right to land and power and the land belonged to the low caste people who were the original inhabitants of the land in the peninsula. Phule founded the Satyashodhak Samaj to promote caste equality. He wrote a book named Gulamgiri; in 1873. He dedicated his book to all those Americans who had fought against slavery.

Who could enter temples?

Ambedkar had led many movements to get the right of temple entry for the dalits. The dalits were not allowed to enter into the temples. Ambedkar led three such movements between 1927 and 1935.

E.V. Ramaswamy Naicker came from a middle class family. He was also called as Periyar. He used to be a member of the Congress. But when he saw seating arrangements on caste affiliations during one of the feasts organized by the Congress, he left it in disgust. After that, Periyar founded the Self Respect Movement. He felt that untouchables were the true upholders of an original Tamil and Dravidian culture. He felt that all religious authorities saw social divisions and inequality as something which was God-given. Hence, untouchables had to free themselves from all religions if they were to achieve social equality.

National Movement in Making

THE MAKING OF THE NATIONAL MOVEMENT: 1870s-1947

The Emergence of Nationalism

Within about a hundred years, the British took control of almost every aspect of life in India. Many Indians began to feel that the British control had to end to make India the country for Indians.

Early Political Associations: After 1850, many political associations were formed. Most of them were formed in the 1870s and 1880s. Most of these associations were led by English-educated professionals. Some of the important ones were; the Poona Sarvajanik Sabha, the Indian Association, the Madras Mahajan Sabha, the Bombay Presidency Association. The Indian National Congress was also formed during this period. The naming conventions of these political associations suggest that they wanted to take issues which affected all the people of India; although many of these associations functioned in specific parts of the country.

Some of the reasons for dissatisfaction with British rule in the 1870s and 1880s are as follows:

• The Arms Act was passed in 1878. This Act disallowed Indians from possessing arms.
• The Vernacular Press Act was passed in 1878. This Act empowered the government to confiscate the assets of newspapers including their printing presses, if the newspaper published anything “objectionable”.
• The government tried to introduce the Ilbert Bill in 1883. The bill made provisions for trial of British or European persons by Indians. Thus, the Ilbert Bill sought equality between British and Indian judges in the country. But the whites opposed the Bill and forced the government to withdraw it.

The Indian National Congress

The Indian National Congress was established in 1885 at Bombay. In its first meeting at Bombay, 72 delegates from all over the country were present. The early leadership was mainly composed of people from Bombay and Calcutta. Dadabhai Naoroji, Pherozeshah Mehta, Badruddin Tyabji, W. C. Bonneryji, Surendranath Banerji, Romesh Chandra Dutt, S. Subramania Iyer, etc. were part of the early leadership of Congress.

A nation in the making

In its first twenty years, the Congress was “moderate” in its objectives and methods. During this period, the main demand of Congress was about getting a greater voice for Indians in the government and administration. Some of the demands made by the Congress during this period are as follows:

• The Congress wanted better representation of Indians in the Legislative Councils. It also wanted
• introduction of the Legislative Council in those provinces where none existed.
• The Congress made a demand for civil service examinations to be held in India also.
• The Congress also demanded a separation of judiciary and executive, the repeal of Arms Act and freedom of speech and expression.

Economic demands which were during the early years of the Congress are as follows:

• Reduction in revenue, cut in military expenditure and more funds for irrigation.
• The Congress also passed various resolutions on the salt tax, treatment of Indian labourers abroad and the suffering of forest dwellers.

These demands show that in spite of being a body of the educated elite, the Congress also talked about the common people.

The Moderate leaders wanted to create public awareness about the unjust nature of British rule. In order to do so, they published newspapers, wrote articles and tried to show the bad effects of the British rule.

Freedom is our birthright

By the 1890s, many Indians began to question the style of the Congress. New leaders emerged who began to explore more radical objectives and methods. Bepin Chandra Pal, Bal Gangadhar Tilak and Lala Lajpat Rai were among the radical leaders. They criticized the Moderates for their “policy of prayers”. They argued that people should not believe on the so called good intentions of the government and must fight for swaraj. Tilak raised the famous slogan, “Freedom is my birthright and I shall have it”.

Partition of Bengal

Bengal was partitioned in 1905 by Viceroy Curzon. At that time, Bengal was the largest province of British India. It included Bihar and parts of Orissa. Administrative convenience was cited as the reason for the partition of Bengal. Most of the analysts believe that the partition was done to reduce the influence of Bengali politician and to split the Bengali people.

Effects of Partition of Bengal: People all over India were angry with the partition of Bengal. All sections of the Congress opposed it. Large public meetings and demonstrations were held to protest the decision. The struggle against the partition of Bengal came to be known as the Swadeshi Movement. It was strongest in Bengal but was felt in other parts of the country as well. It was known as the Vandemataram Movement in Andhra.

Main aims of Swadeshi Movement:

• Oppose the British rule.
• Encourage the ideas of self-help, swadeshi enterprise.
• Encourage national education and use of Indian languages.

The radicals advocated mass mobilization and boycott of British institutions and goods. Some leaders also suggested the use of revolutionary violence to overthrow British rule.

Muslim League: The All India Muslim League was formed at Dacca in 1906; by a group of Muslim landlords and nawabs. The League supported the partition of Bengal. Some seats in the council were reserved for the Muslims. The League wanted the representatives for those seats to be elected by Muslim voters. This demand was willingly conceded by the government in 1909.

Split in Congress: There was a split in the Congress in 1907. The Moderates were opposed to the use of any kind of violence. After the split, the Congress came to be dominated by the Moderates. However, the two groups reunited in December 1915. In 1916, the Congress and the Muslim League signed the historic Lucknow Pact. They decided to work together for representative government in the country.

The Growth of Mass Nationalism

• The First World War changed the economic and political situation in India. There was a sharp price rise which increased the problems of the common people.
• The business groups reaped huge profits because the war increased the demand for all kinds of goods. Reduced imports meant that the new demand was being met by the Indian business houses. The business groups now began to demand more opportunities for development.
• Many people from the villages were forced to serve in the British army during the war. Exposure to the alien lands helped them in understanding the exploitation being done by the colonial powers in other parts of the world.
• The Russian Revolution took place in 197. News about peasants’ and workers’ struggle and ideas of socialism also reached to the nationalists in India.

India After Independence

A New and Divided Nation

After its independence in August 1947, India faced huge challenges. Some of the major challenges are as follows:

• After partition, 8 million refugees had come from Pakistan. Rehabilitation of these refugees was a big challenge.
• There were about 500 hundred princely states; which needed to be assimilated into the country.
• The huge population of India was divided along caste and communal lines. The country had always been a diverse one with numerous cultures.
• The economy was totally dependent on agriculture; which was dependent on the monsoon. A large number of factory workers were poor and were living in slums. The nation was in abject poverty.

A Constitution is Written

The Constituent Assembly was formed by elected representatives. It held its deliberations between December 1946 and November 1949 to draw a constitution for the new nation. The Indian Constitution was adopted on 26 January 1950.

Voting Rights:

Universal adult franchise was adopted by the Constitution and it was one of the remarkable features of the Constitution. In other countries, it had taken years of struggle to ensure universal adult franchise. Thus, the Constitution makers gave political equality to all citizens of India.

Equality:

Another feature of the Constitution was the guarantee of equality before the law; regardless of caste or religious affiliations. While some leaders proposed to build the nation on Hindu ideals, Jawaharlal Nehru wanted to build a secular state.

Reservations for Underprivileged:

Special privileges were given for the poorest and most disadvantaged Indians. The dalits and the tribals had faced oppression since ages. They were given reservation in government jobs and educational institutions so that they could improve their socioeconomic status. Reservation for these classes was also given in the Parliament and state legislatures.

Power Sharing:

Several rounds of discussions were held to distribute power between the centre and the state. It was argued that only a strong Centre would help in developing a strong and united country. Some members argued in favour of giving more power to the provinces. A balance was chalked out by making separate lists of subjects for the Union and the State governments. The Concurrent List was prepared to include subjects with common interest.

Issue of Language:

The issue of language was another serious matter of discussion. Some leaders believed that English should be done away with and Hindi should be promoted as the national language. But this idea was opposed by the leaders from non-Hindi areas. They did not want an imposition on Hindi on the people of those areas. Finally, it was decided that while Hindi would be the ‘official language’; English would be used for communication among various states.

Formation of New States

Back in the 1920s, the Congress had promised to create linguistic states after the independence. But the partition of the country along communal lines changed the mindset of the nationalist leaders. They wanted to prevent further divisions in the country on sectarian lines. Nehru and Sardar Patel were against the creation of linguistic states.

But people from many parts of India began their demand for creation of states based on languages. The strongest protests came from the Telugu speaking districts of the Madras Presidency. Nehru was shown black flags when he went there to campaign for the general elections of 1952.

Potti Sriramulu: In October of 1952, a Gandhian leader Potti Sriramulu went on a fast onto death to demand the formation of Andhra Pradesh for Telugu speakers. After fifty eight days into his fast, Potti Sriramulu died on 15 December 1952. This sparked large scale violence and protests. The government had to concede to the demand and the new state of Andhra Pradesh was created on 1 October 1953.

Creation of more states: After the creation of Andhra Pradesh, demands from other linguistic groups came cropping up. A State Reorganisation Commission was set up to look into the matter. The Commission submitted its repots in 1956. Based on its recommendations; the states of Assam, Orissa, Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Karnataka were created. The large Hindi-speaking region of the north was also broken up into several states. Bombay was divided into Maharashtra and Gujarat in 1960. Punjab was divided into Punjab and Haryana in 1966.

Planning for Development

Removing poverty and building a modern technical and industrial base were important objectives for the new nation. The Planning Commission was set up in 1950 to plan and execute policies for economic development.

The policy makers followed the model of the mixed economy. As per this model, both the State and the private sector had to play important and complementary role in economic development.

The Nation, Sixty Years On

India has entered into its seventh decade of independence. The biggest achievement of the nation is the continuity of democratic form of government. At the time of independence, many foreign observers had predicted that India would not be able to survive as a single country. The huge diversity of India was the basis of their apprehensions. But we are enjoying the fruits of democracy, independent judiciary and independent media.

Socioeconomic disparities still persist in the country. Caste based inequality persist in many parts of rural India. Communal violence has also happened from time to time.

Agriculture

Types of Economic Activities:

(a) Primary Activities: The economic activities which involve extraction and production of natural resources are called primary activities, e.g. agriculture, fishing, gathering, etc.

(b) Secondary Activities: The economic activities which involve the processing of natural resources are called secondary activities, e.g. manufacturing steel, baking of bread, weaving of cloth, etc.

(c) Tertiary Activities: The economic activities which support the primary and secondary activities are called tertiary activities, e.g. banking, transport, finance, etc.

50% of the world’s population is engaged in agricultural activity. In India, two-thirds of the population is dependent on agriculture.

Arable Land: The land on which crops are grown in called arable land. Favourable topography and climate are important for agriculture.

Viticulture: Cultivation of grapes is called viticulture.

Horticulture: Growing vegetables, flowers and fruits for commercial use is called horticulture.

Sericulture: Commercial rearing of silk worms for silk production is called sericulture.

Farm System: Farming is a kind of system in which various inputs and processes are involved to obtain production. Machineries, seeds and fertilisers are the physical inputs for agriculture. Labour is the human input. Crops are the outputs of agriculture.

Types of Farming

There are two main types of farming, viz. subsistence farming and commercial farming.

Subsistence Farming: When farming is done to meet the needs of the farmer’s family, it is called subsistence farming. In subsistence farming, low levels of technology and household labour are generally utilised. Farming is done on smaller plots and output is also small. Subsistence farming can be further categorized as intensive subsistence and primitive subsistence farming.

(a) Intensive Subsistence Farming: In this type of farming, the farmer cultivates on a small plot of land. He uses simple tools and more labour. Places which have fertile soils and where the climate allows a large number of days with sunshine are suitable for this type of farming. In favourable climates, farmers are able to grow more than one crop in a year. Rice is the main crop in this type of farming. However, wheat, maize, pulses and oilseeds are also grown. This type of farming is prevalent in densely populated areas of the monsoon regions of south, southeast and east Asia.

(b) Primitive Subsistence Farming: Shifting cultivation and nomadic herding come under this type of farming.

(i) Shifting Cultivation: In shifting cultivation, a small patch of land is cleared by felling the trees and burning them. Then the ashes are mixed with the soil and seeds are broadcast. After a couple of years, the patch of the land is left fallow and the farmer moves on in search of a new patch of land. Shifting cultivation is practiced in thickly forested areas of Amazon basin, tropical Africa, parts of southeast Asia and Northeast India.

Different Names of Shifting Cultivation:

• Jhum Cultivation: Meghalaya and Chhattisgarh
• Milpa: Mexico
• Roca: Brazil
• Ladang: Malaysia

(ii) Nomadic Herding: In this type of farming, cattle, sheep, goat and camel are reared. The herdsmen move from place to place with their animals in search of new pastures. Nomadic herding is practiced in the semi-arid and arid regions of Sahara, Central Asia and some parts of India (like Rajasthan and Jammu & Kashmir).

Commercial Farming: This type of farming is done with sale as the main purpose. In this case, a very large area is cultivated and large amount of capital is utilised. Heavy machineries are used with less emphasis on manual labour. Commercial farming includes commercial grain farming, mixed farming and plantation.

The temperate grasslands of North America, Europe and Asia are the major areas where commercial grain farming is done. Severe winters in these areas restrict the growing season and only a single crop can be grown in a year. Tea, coffee, sugarcane, cashew, rubber, banana and cotton are grown in plantations. The produce of plantation may be processed on the farm itself or in nearby factories. A good transport network is essential for commercial plantation. Rubber is mainly grown in Malaysia, coffee in Brazil and tea is grown in India and Sri Lanka.

MAJOR CROPS

Rice: Rice is the staple diet of people in the tropical and sub-tropical regions. Rice needs high temperature, high humidity and rainfall. Alluvial soil is the best for rice cultivation because it can retain water. China is the leading producer of rice. India, Japan, Sri Lanka and Egypt are also among the leading producers.

Wheat: Wheat needs moderate temperature and rainfall during growing season. It needs bright sunshine during harvest season. Well drained loamy soil is ideal for wheat cultivation. Wheat is grown mainly in the USA, Canada, Argentina, Russia, Ukraine, Australia and India.

Millets: Millets grow on less fertile and sandy soil. Millet is a hardy crop and needs low rainfall and high to moderate temperature. Jowar, bajra and ragi are the millets grown in India. Millet is also grown in Nigeria, China and Niger.

Maize: Maize needs moderate temperature, rainfall and plenty of sunshine. Well drained fertile soil is required for maize cultivation. Maize is mainly grown in North America, Brazil, China, Russia, Canada, India and Mexico.

Cotton: Cotton needs high temperature, light rainfall and bright sunshine. It also needs two hundred and ten frost-free days. Black soil is ideal for growing cotton. China, USA, India, Pakistan, Brazil and Egypt are the leading producers of cotton.

Jute: Jute needs high temperature, heavy rainfall and high humidity. It is also known as the “Golden Fibre”. India and Bangladesh are the leading producers of jute.

Coffee: Coffee needs warm and humid climate with well-drained loamy soil. Brazil is the leading producer of coffee; followed by Columbia and India.

Tea: Tea needs cool climate and well distributed high rainfall throughout the year. Tea plants need well-drained loamy soil and gentle slope. Processing of tea leaves is highly labour intensive. India is the leading producer of tea; followed by Sri Lanka, China and Kenya.

Agricultural Development

Efforts to increase farm production mean agricultural development. Agricultural development can be attained by various methods; like increasing the area under cultivation, increasing the number of crops grown. Improvement in irrigation facilities, use of fertilisers and high yielding variety of seeds are also done for agricultural development. Moreover, use of modern farm equipments is also encouraged for agricultural development.

A Farm in India

The plot size is usually smaller in India. The Indian farmer usually lives in the main village. He buys high yielding varieties of seeds and chemical fertilisers from shops which sell them at subsidized rates. As the land is fertile in a major part of the country, most of the farmers grow at least two crops in a year. Rice, wheat and pulses are the main crops.

An Indian farmer takes advice from his friends and elders. He also takes advice from government agricultural officers. Some farmers use bullocks for ploughing, while some others hire a tractor. Irrigation is done by tube-well or with the help of canals.

Many Indian farmers are also engage in animal husbandry to support their income. Some of the farmers also rear poultry. The government veterinary hospitals provide facilities for artificial insemination of cattle.

A small farmer is usually helped by his family members when he needs the services of manual labour. Storage facilities are not proper in most of the villages. Hence, most of the farmers are forced to sell their produce when the market may not be favourable to them.

A Farm in the USA

A typical farm size in the USA is about 250 hectares and it can go in thousands as well. The farmer usually lives in the farm itself. Corn, soyabean, wheat, cotton and sugarbeet are the major crops. Ploughing is done by huge cultivators. Combine harvester is used during the harvest. Pesticides and fertilisers are spread from airplanes. Soil samples are taken to the soil laboratory from time to time. Soil testing helps the farmer to scientifically plan his farming activities. The farmers in the USA often use computers to access latest information from satellites.

Storage facilities are highly developed and huge silos are used for storing grains. Well developed cold storage facilities ensure that fruits and vegetables do not go waste.

Industries

Industry: An economic activity which is concerned with production of goods, extraction of minerals or provision of services is called an industry.

Classification of Industry

On the basis of raw materials, industry can be categorized as follows:

Agro-based Industries:

When plants and animal based products are used as raw materials, it is called agro-based industry, e.g. cotton textiles, leather, edible oil, etc.

Mineral-based Industries:

When minerals are the raw materials, it is called mineral-based industry, e.g. iron and steel, petrochemical, etc. The products of mineral-based industry feed other industries.

Marine-based Industries:

When products from seas and oceans are used as raw materials, it is called marine-based industry, e.g. sea food industry.

Forest-based Industries:

When forest produce are the raw materials, it is called forest-based industry, e.g. paper, furniture, pharmaceutical, safety matches, etc.

On the basis of size, i.e. the amount of capital invested, industries can be classified as follows:

Cottage Industry: When products are manufactured by hand and by artisans, it is called cottage industry. Basket weaving, pottery, etc. are examples of cottage industry. A small amount of capital is invested in small scale industries.

Large Scale Industry:

When a high amount of capital is invested, it is called large scale industry. Large scale industry also produces in large volumes, e.g. automobile industry.

On the basis of ownership, industries can be classified as follows:

Private Sector: These are owned and operated by individuals or a group of individuals, e.g. TATA and Reliance.

Public Sector: These are owned by the government or government agencies, e.g. SAIL, HAL, etc.

Joint Sector: These are jointly owned by the government and private owners, e.g. Delhi Metro, Maruti, etc.

Cooperative Sector: When workers or producers join together to form a company in which profit and workload are equally shared, it is called a cooperative, e.g. Amul, Lijjat, Mother Dairy, etc.

Factors Affecting Location of Industries

Availability of raw materials, land, water, labour, power, capital, transport and market are the main factors which affect the location of an industry. A place where some or all of these factors are available is an ideal place for the growth of industries. Sometimes, the government provides incentives; in the form of subsidized power and tax holidays; to develop industries in a particular location. Industrialization usually leads to development and growth of towns and cities.

Industrial System

• Inputs: Raw materials, labour, land, transport, power and other infrastructure are the inputs of industry.
• Processes: A variety of activities which lead to transformation of raw materials into finished products.
• Output: Products or services are the outputs of industry.

Industrial Regions

Major industrial regions of the world are; eastern North America, western and central Europe, eastern Europe and eastern Asia. Major industrial regions are usually located in the temperate areas, near sea ports and especially near coal fields.

Important industrial regions of India are as follows:

• Mumbai-Pune cluster
• Bangalore-Tamil Nadu region
• Hugli region
• Ahmadabad-Baroda region
• Chhottanagpur industrial belt
• Vishakhapatam-Guntur belt
• Gurgaon-Delhi-Meerut region
• Kollam-Thiruvananthapuram industrial cluster

Distribution of Major Industries

Iron and steel industry, textile industry and information technology industry are the major industries of the world. while the IT industry is an emerging industry, the other two are older industries.

Germany, USA, China, Japan and Russia are the major countries with iron and steel industries. India, Hong Kong, South Korea, Japan and Taiwan are the major countries of textiles industry. The Silicon Valley in California (USA) and Bangalore in India are the major hubs of the IT industry.

Human Resources

Distribution Of Population

• More than 90% of the world’s population lives in 10% of the land surface.
• Many more people live in the northern hemisphere than in the southern hemisphere.
• 60% of the world’s population lives in just 10 countries.

Out of every 100 people in the world:

• 61 people live in Asia,
• 12 people live in Europe,
• 13 people live in Africa,
• 8 people live in central and South America,
• 5 people live in northern America and
• 1 people live in Oceania (Australia, New Zealand and Pacific Islands).

(REF: NCERT Textbook)

Density Of Population: The number of people living in a unit area is called density of population. It is usually expressed as number of persons per square km. The average population density of the world is 51 persons per square km. South Central Asia have the highest population density; followed by East and South East Asia. The population density in India is 382 persons per square km.

FACTORS AFFECTING DISTRIBUTION OF POPULATION

Geographical Factors

Topography: A larger number of people live in the plains than in the mountains or plateaus. Plains are suitable for farming, manufacturing and most of the other activities. The Ganges plains are the most densely populated area of the world.

Climate: People prefer to live in moderate climates and avoid extreme climates. Hence, less number of people lives in the Sahara Desert and in the polar regions of Russia, Canada.

Soil: Fertile plains of the Ganges and Brahmaputra (India), Hwang-he, Chang Jiang (China) and the Nile (Egypt) are the areas with a high population density.

Water: Water is essential for survival of people and hence, more people live in the river valleys than in the deserts.

Minerals: Areas with mineral deposits attract people because of potential of economic development.

Social, Cultural and Economic Factors

Social: Areas with better housing, education and health facilities are more densely populated. Pune, Bangalore and Delhi are the cities which attract people because of better facilities.

Cultural: Places with religion or cultural significance always attract people. Due to this, Varanasi, Jerusalem and Vatican City are densely populated.

Economic: Industrial areas give lot of opportunities to people. Mumbai’s population grew because of this reason. In recent years, areas around Delhi have attracted a large number of migrants from across the country; because of industrial development.

POPULATION CHANGE

Until the 1800s, the world’s population grew at a slow and steady pace. The birth rate and death rate were very high during this period. There were no proper health facilities. Agricultural production was low and hence food availability was a problem.

The world’s population reached one billion in 1804. Within 150 years after that, the world’s population reached 3 billion in 1959. This is usually referred to as the population explosion.

40 years after that, the world’s population doubled and became 6 billon in 1999. This could happen because of better food supplies, health facilities. Death rate reduced and birth rate remained fairly high during this period.

Birth Rate: The number of live births per 1,000 people is called birth rate.

Death Rate: The number of deaths per 1,000 people is called death rate.

When the death rate is more than the birth rate, it will lead to de-growth in population. When the birth rate is equal to death rate, there will be no growth in population. When the birth rate is higher than death rate, it will lead to growth in population. The difference between birth rate and death rate is called natural growth rate of population.

Life expectancy: The number of years that an average person is expected to live is called life expectancy.

Migration: When people move from one place to another in search of livelihood; it is called migration.

Emigration: When people move outside their country, it is called emigration.

Immigration: When people come from another country, it is called immigration.

The population of the USA and Australia has increased because of immigration. On the other hand, the population of Sudan has decreased because of emigration. People from less developed countries usually migrate to the developed countries in search of better employment opportunities.

In case of internal migration, people from rural areas usually migrate to urban areas. Internal migration does not change the size of the population, but changes the composition of population in a particular area.

PATTERNS OF POPULATION CHANGE

Some countries are showing high population growth, e.g. Kenya. Some countries, on the other hand, are showing de-growth in population, e.g. UK and many European countries.

Population Composition

The population composition of a country tells about age profile, sex, literacy level, health condition, occupation and income level. Thus, the structure of the population is called population composition.

Population Pyramid: A population pyramid is a graphical representation of population composition. In a population pyramid, the total population is divided into various age groups, e.g. 5 to 9 years, 10 to 14 years, etc. For each age group, the percentage of the total population is subdivided into males and females.

The relative number of children (below 15 years) and that of the elderly (above 65 years) shows the relative number of dependents in the population. The relative number of people in the working age (between 15 and 65 years) shows the relative number of productive people.

Population Pyramid of Kenya: The population pyramid of Kenya is very wide at the bottom and very narrow at the top. This means that while the birth rate is very high; so is the death rate. A larger proportion of people below 15 years of age show that the relative number of dependents is very high in Kenya.

Population Pyramid of India: The population pyramid of India shows a wider base but the middle portion of the pyramid is in healthy shape. The top is narrow. This shows that there is sizeable proportion of people in economically productive age group. This is a good sign for the economy of India as the number of dependents is not too much.

Population Pyramid of Japan: The population pyramid of Japan shows a wider middle and narrower base and top. This indicates towards a low birth rate and death rate. The relative size of dependent population is less compared to the relative size of population in the economically productive age group. While this is ideal for the present, it does not hold good omen for the future. In future, there would be more elderly and less people in the working age group.

Law And Social Justice

Markets everywhere tend to be exploitative of people – whether as workers, consumers or producers. To protect people from such exploitation, the government makes certain laws. These laws try to ensure that the unfair practices are kept at a minimum in the markets.

Private companies, contractors, businesspersons normally want to make as much profit as they can. In the drive for profits, they might deny workers their rights and not pay them wages, for example. In the eyes of the law it is illegal or wrong to deny workers their wages. Similarly to ensure that workers are not underpaid, or are paid fairly, there is a law on minimum wages. A worker has to be paid not less than the minimum wage by the employer. The minimum wages are revised upwards every few years.

As with the law on minimum wages, which is meant to protect workers, there are also laws that protect the interests of producers and consumers in the market. These help ensure that the relations between these three parties – the worker, consumer and producer – are governed in a manner that is not exploitative.

Through making, enforcing and upholding these laws, the government can control the activities of individuals or private companies so as to ensure social justice. Many of these laws have their basis in the Fundamental Rights guaranteed by the Indian Constitution. For instance, the Right against Exploitation says that no one can be forced to work for low wages or under bondage. Similarly, the Constitution lays down “no child below the age of 14 shall be employed to work in any factory or mines or any other hazardous employment.”

Worker’s Worth

One reason why foreign companies come to India is for cheap labour. Wages that the companies pay to workers are far higher than what they have to pay to workers in poorer countries like India. For lower pay, companies can get longer hours of work. Additional expenses such as for housing facilities for workers are also fewer. Thus, companies can save costs and earn higher profits.

One part of the answer lies in what is perceived as the worth of an Indian worker. One worker can easily replace another. Since there is so much unemployment, there are many workers who are willing to work in unsafe conditions in return for a wage. Making use of the workers’ vulnerability, employers ignore safety in workplaces. Thus, even so many years after the Bhopal gas tragedy, there are regular reports of accidents in construction sites, mines or factories due to the callous attitude of the employers.

Enforcement of Safety Laws

As the lawmaker and enforcer, the government is supposed to ensure that safety laws are implemented. It is also the duty of the government to ensure that the Right to Life guaranteed under Article 21 of the Constitution is not violated.

With more industries being set up both by local and foreign businesses in India, there is a great need for stronger laws protecting workers’ rights and better enforcement of these laws.

New Laws to Protect the Environment

In 1984, there were very few laws protecting the environment in India, and there was hardly any enforcement of these laws. The environment was treated as a ‘free’ entity and any industry could pollute the air and water without any restrictions. Whether it was our rivers, air, groundwater - the environment was being polluted and the health of people disregarded.

The Bhopal disaster brought the issue of environment to the forefront. Several thousands of persons who were not associated with the factory in any way were greatly affected because of the poisonous gases leaked from the plant. This made people realise that the existing laws, though weak, only covered the individual worker and not persons who might be injured due to industrial accidents.

In response to this pressure from environmental activists and others, in the years following the Bhopal gas tragedy, the Indian government introduced new laws on the environment. Henceforth, the polluter was to be held accountable for the damage done to environment. The environment is something that people\ over generations will share, and it could not be destroyed merely for industrial development.

Conclusion

Laws are necessary in many situations, whether this be the market, office or factory so as to protect people from unfair practices. Private companies, contractors, business persons, in order to make higher profits, resort to unfair practices such as paying workers low wages, employing children for work, ignoring the conditions of work, ignoring the damage to the environment (and hence to the people in the neighborhood) etc.

A major role of the government, therefore, is to control the activities of private companies by making, enforcing and upholding laws so as to prevent unfair practices and ensure social justice. This means that the government has to make ‘appropriate laws’ and also has to enforce the laws. Laws that are weak and poorly enforced can cause serious harm, as the Bhopal gas tragedy showed.