Class 8 English NCERT The Summit Within By HPS Ahluwalia

The Summit Within           By   HPS Ahluwalia

about the author

 Major H.P.S. Ahluwalia was a member of the first successful Indian expedition to Mount Everest in 1965. He climbed the Mount Everest on 29 May 1965 along with his friends Rawat and Phu Dorji. In the Indo- Pakistan war of 1965, he was injured and confined to a wheelchair.
         He is the recipient of several awards like Padma Bhushan, Arjun Award, the National Award for the best work done in the field of Disability. He won the Tenzing Norgay National Adventure Award for lifetime achievement on August 29, 2009.
        He has written several books like ‘Higher than Everest, ‘Beyond the Himalayas’ and ‘Everest is within You’
On May 29, 1953, Edmund Hillary and Tenzing Norgay became the first to reach the summit of Mount Everest which stands 29,035 feet above sea level. The two mountaineers spent only about 15 minutes on the snow-covered summit. Tenzing, a Nepalese Sherpa, also left some of the sweets as a Buddhist offering, and Hillary, a beekeeper from New Zealand, placed a cross nearby
 new words
Summit:            the highest point
Panorama:       view of a wide area
Jubilant:         very happy because of success
Fade:               disappear gradually
Brutal:             very cruel, without mercy

summary

‘The Summit Within’ is a story of experiences of Major H.P.S. Ahluwalia, a member of the first successful Indian expedition to  Mount Everest. Ahluwalia was full of humility when he stood on the summit of Everest. He thanked God for his physical success.  It was the highest of the goals for him.While getting down from the Summit he asked himself why he climbed Everest and what made him to do so. The people climb mountains because they present great difficulties. Man takes delight in overcoming obstacles. A climb  to a summit means the demonstration of climber’s endurance,  Persistence and will power. Since childhood, the narrator has been attracted by mountains.  For him mountains are nature at its best. They have a challenging  beauty and majesty. They are a means of communion with God.Everest is the highest and the mightiest and has defied many previous attempts. On climbing its summit, one has the sense of victory  and of happiness. Its view brings a spiritual change in his mind. It poses a challenge before him which was difficult to resist. One feels connected with the supernatural element on reaching the Summit. One becomes conscious of his own smallness in this large Universe. It provides physical, emotional and spiritual fulfilment. Climbing a mountain is a highly risky job and needs others’ help also. The fellow climbers prove to be a source of inspiration. They remember their Gods to feel confident. It is far more difficult to climb the summit within oneself than to climb the summit of a mountain. One can get a fuller knowledge of oneself merely by climbing one’s personal and internal mountain peak. It is fearful and unscalable like the climb to the summit of a mountain. Both the climbs teach one much about the world and about oneself. The internal summits are much Higher than Everest. The climber gets the inspiration to face life’s ordeals with determination.

Short question answers

What is the author’s personal view about mountains?
From his childhood the author has been attracted by mountains. He considers mountains as nature’s best form and appearance. He believes that they are a means of communion with God.

Why does man feels delighted in overcoming obstacles?
Man feels delighted in overcoming obstacles because he is adventurous by nature. He loves taking risks.  

Why do people wish to climb Mount Everest?
People wish to climb Mount Everest because it is the highest, the mightiest and has defied many previous attempts. It is a brutal struggle with rock and ice. It gives a sense of victory and happiness to the climber.

 

1. Standing on Everest, the writer was

(i) overjoyed.

(ii) very sad.

(iii) jubilant and sad.

Answer: (iii) He was jubilant because of reaching the highest peak in the world and was sad because he had had to go down to reach the real world.

2. The emotion that gripped him was one of

(i) victory over hurdles.

(ii) humility and a sense of smallness.

(iii) greatness and self importance.

(iv) joy of discovery.

Answer: (ii) Anybody can get overawed by the sheer scale of nature’s creation and feels so small in front of it.

3. “The summit of the mind” refers to

(i) great intellectual achievements.

(ii) the process of maturing mentally and spiritually.

(iii) overcoming personal ambition for common welfare.

(iv) living in the world of thought and imagination.

(v) the triumph of mind over worldly pleasures for a noble cause.

(vi) a fuller knowledge of oneself.

Mark the item(s) not relevant.

Answer: (i) As per the passage it is not about an achievement.

1. Answer the following questions.

(i) What are the three qualities that played a major role in the author’s climb?

Answer: The first quality was author’s affinity to mountains. The second quality was the ambition of climbing the Everest was like second nature to him. It was as natural an urge as breathing. The third quality was a deep desire to be a small part of the larger universe. These things made a deadly combination to kindle a burning desire to reach the highest peak in the world

(ii) Why is adventure, which is risky, also pleasurable?

Answer: An adventure presents great obstacles to the man. It is human nature to endure all pains to cross those obstacles. Once you cross an obstacle you get pleasure of achievement.

(iii) What was it about Mount Everest that the author found irresistible?

Answer: Author was always fond of mountain climbing. Everest is special as it is the highest and the toughest peak to conquer. Climbing the Everest takes your last ounce of energy. Once you are half way up there can be no going back, because coming down is as difficult as going up. Then there is the irresistible urge to achieve the ultimate, climbing the toughest and the highest mountain in the world.

(iv) One does not do it (climb a high peak) for fame alone. What does one do it for, really?

Answer: There is a deep sense of getting the ultimate feeling of how small a part of universe you are. The desire is also filled by lots of emotion. According to author mountains are like abodes of the God. Reaching a peak means witnessing the communication with the God. It is also to get a feeling of adventure. The fame part automatically comes with the package. For example a cricketer doesn’t start playing cricket for fame, he does it because he enjoys cricket more than anything else in life. Once you enjoy doing something then only you attain perfection in doing it. It is your achievements which bring fame as a bonus.

(v) “He becomes conscious in a special manner of his own smallness in his large universe.” This awareness defines an emotion mentioned in te first paragraph. Which is the emotion?

Answer: The emotion mentioned is ‘humility’. It means a sense of being small and mortal. It is a fact that our planet earth is a small speck of dust in the larger universe and we are a tiny part of this planet. The sheer grand size of a mountain peak dwarfs your size and has a sobering effect on you. Due to this you tend to realize that you are just a small part of the large scheme called the universe.

(vi) What were the “symbols of reverence” left by members of the team on Everest?

Answer: Many people who have reached the Everest have left totems of their religion. The author left a picture of Guru Nanak, his companion Rawat left a picture of the Goddess Durga and Sir Edmund Hillary buried a cross there. The author describes them not as symbols of achievement but as symbols of reverence.

(vii) What, according to the writer, did his experience as an Everester teach him?

Answer: The act of climbing the Everest taught the author to face life’s ordeal resolutely. The author feels that in real life we have mental obstacles to cross. These obstacles are like our internal mountain peaks. These peaks are even more difficult to surmount.

2. Write a sentence against each of the following statements. Your sentence should explain the statement. You can pick out sentences from the text and rewrite them.

(i) The experience changes you completely.

One who has been to the mountains is never the same again.

(ii) Man takes delight in overcoming obstacles.

Overcoming obstacles is a means to test and show your physical endurance and will power.

(iii) Mountains are nature at its best.

Their beauty and majesty pose a great challenge.

(iv) The going was difficult but the after-effects were satisfying.

You look back at pains you underwent and get a sense that it was worth taking those pains to attain your goal.

(v) The physical conquest of a mountain is really a spiritual experience.

As the site of standing on a peak gives you a sense to be in communion with the God, to be in the vast lap of mother nature, you tend to feel the presence of the all powerful God.

The School Boy

I love to rise in a summer morn,

When the birds sing on every tree;

The distant huntsman winds his horn,

And the skylark sings with me.

O! what sweet company.

This poem is about how a little boy feels when he is forced to go to school. The boy loves to rise with the sunshine. He loves to hear the chirrup of birds in the morning. He loves the hooting call from hunters horn and he enjoys the singing of the skylark. Like every little child he enjoys the beautiful which nature presents to us everyday.

But to go to school in a summer morn,

O! it drives all joy away;

Under a cruel eye outworn,

The little ones spend the day,

In sighing and dismay.

Ah! then at times I drooping sit,

And spend many an anxious hour.

Nor in my book can I take delight,

Nor sit in learning’s bower,

Worn thro’ with the dreary shower.

The boy does not like his early morning rush to the school as it kills all the joy of a blissful life. Teachers eyes seem to be cruel and penetrating under which a student has to spend an entire day. He is sitting in school sighing in depression. He sits there with a drooping shoulder because he can’t enjoy fiddling with books. At the end of the day it looks like he had been through a long tiring shower.

How can the bird that is born for joy,

Sit in a cage and sing.

How can a child when fears annoy,

But droop his tender wing,

And forget his youthful spring.

The poet has compared a boy in school with a bird in a cage. The way a bird can’t enjoy singing in the cage, a child cannot but forget his bubbly nature.

O! Father and Mother, if buds are nip’d,

And blossoms blown away,

And if the tender plants are strip’d

Of their joy in the springing day,

By sorrow and cares dismay,

How shall the summer arise in joy,

Or the summer fruits appear?

Now the child gives a good argument to his parents. If buds are nipped and flowers are blown away then plants will be left with nothing to enjoy the arrival of the spring season. If spring will be devoid of flowers, then summer will be more sorrowful. Without flowers in spring trees would be unable to bear fruits in the summer and there will be no joy left in the summer.

WILLIAM BLAKE

Class 8 SST Revolt of 1857 Handwritten Notes

Class 8 Maths Square Square Root Examples and assignment

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Square /Square  Root Examples and assignment

1 - What will be the unit digit of the squares of the following numbers?

(i) 81

Answer: 1 Since, 1² ends up having 1 as the digit at unit’s place so 81² will have 1 at unit’s place.

(ii) 272

Asnwer: 4 Since, 2² = 4, therefore, square of 272 will have 2 at it's unit place.

 2. The following numbers are obviously not perfect squares. Give reason.

(i) 1057 (ii) 23453 (iii) 7928 (iv) 222222 (v) 64000 (vi) 89722 (vii) 222000 (viii) 505050

Answer: (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (vi) don’t have any of the 0, 1, 4, 5, 6, or 9 at unit’s place, so they are not be perfect squares.

(v), (vii) and (viii) don’t have even number of zeroes at the end so they are not perfect squares.

3. Write a Pythagorean triplet whose one member is:

(i) 6

Solution : As we know 2m, m ² + 1 and m² - 1 form a Pythagorean triplet for any number, m > 1.

Let us assume 2m = 6

Therefore, m = 3

And, m² + 1 = 3 ² + 1= 9 + 1 = 10

And, m ² - 1 = 3 ² - 1 = 9 - 1 = 8

Test: 6 ² + 8 ² = 36 + 64 = 100 = 10²

Hence, the triplet is 6, 8, and 10 Answer

There are 16 primitive Pythagorean triples with c ≤ 100:

(3, 4, 5 )	(5, 12, 13)	(8, 15, 17)	(7, 24, 25)
(20, 21, 29)	(12, 35, 37)	( 9, 40, 41)	(28, 45, 53)
(11, 60, 61)	(16, 63, 65)	(33, 56, 65)	(48, 55, 73)
(13, 84, 85)	(36, 77, 85)	(39, 80, 89)	(65, 72, 97)

4. What could be the possible ‘one’s’ digits of the square root of each of the following numbers?

(i) 9801

Answer: 1 and 9.

Explanation: Since 1² and 9² give 1 at unit’s place, so these are the possible values of unit digit of the square root.

5. For the following numbers, find the smallest whole number by which it should be multiplied so as to get a perfect square number. Also find the square root of the square number so obtained.

(i) 252

Solution:

By prime factorisation we get,

252 = 2 x 2 x 3 x 3 x 7

Here, 2 and 3 are in pairs but 7 needs a pair. Thus, 7 can become pair after multiplying 252 with 7.

So, 252 will become a perfect square when multiplied by 7.

Thus, Answer = 7

6. For the following number, find the smallest whole number by which it should be divided so as to get a perfect square. Also find the square root of the square number so obtained.

(i) 252

Solution:

By prime factorisation of 252, we get

252 = 2 x 2 x 3 x 3 x 7

Here, 2 and 3 are in pair, but 7 has no pair, which can be eliminated after dividing 768 by 7.

Hence, 252 needs to be divided by 7 to become a perfect square

Thus, Answer = 7

7. The students of Class VIII of a school donated Rs 2401 in all, for Prime Minister’s National Relief Fund. Each student donated as many rupees as the number of students in the class. Find the number of students in the class.

Solution:

We need to calculate the square root of 2401 to get the solution.

By prime factorisation of 2401, we get

2401 = 7 x 7 x 7 x 7

There are 49 students, each contributing 49 rupees

Thus, Answer = 49

8. Find the smallest square number that is divisible by each of the numbers 4, 9 and 10.

Solution: Let us find LCM of 4, 9 and 10

4 = 2 x 2

9 = 3 x 3

10 = 5 x 2

So, LCM = 2 ² x 3 ² x 5 = 180

Now the LCM gives us a clue that if 180 is multiplied by 5 then it will become a perfect square.

The Required number = 180 x 5 = 900

Examples on square root of a perfect square by using the long division method

1. Find the square root of 784 by the long-division method.
Solution:
Marking periods and using the long-division method,

Therefore, √784 = 28

2. Evaluate: √10609.

Solution:

Marking periods and using the long-division method,

Therefore, √10609 = 103

3. What least number must be subtracted from 7250 to get a perfect square? Also, find the square root of this perfect square.

Solution:

Let us try to find the square root of 7250.

This shows that (85)² is less than 7250 by 25.

So, the least number to be subtracted from 7250 is 25.

Required perfect square number = (7250 - 25) = 7225

And, √7225 = 85.

4. Find the greatest number of four digits which is a perfect square.
Solution
Greatest number of four digits = 9999.
Let us try to find the square root of 9999.

This shows that (99)² is less than 9999 by 198.

So, the least number to be subtracted is 198.

Hence, the required number is (9999 - 198) = 9801.

Unsloved Questions

1.     What least number must be added to 5607 to make the sum a perfect square? Find this perfect square and its square root

2.     Find the least number of six digits which is a perfect square. Find the square root of this number.

3.     Find the smallest number by which 1100 must be divided so that the quotient is a perfect square.

4.     Write a Pythagorean triplet whose one member is:18

5.     There are 500 children in a school. For a P.T. drill they have to stand in such a manner that the number of rows is equal to number of columns. How many children would be left out in this arrangement.

Ans

1.     18

2.     489, 317

3.     11

4.     18, 82, 80

5.     16 children will be left out in the arrangement.

Class 8 History Ruling the Countryside

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Class 8 Ruling the Countryside

 

Grant of Diwani and Financial Powers

The East India Company was made the Diwan of Bengal on 12 August 1765; by then Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II. Thus, the Company became of the chief financial administrator of the territory of Bengal.
The Company officials understood one important aspect of expanding their base in India. They understood the importance of those who had ruled the countryside in the past, and had enjoyed authority and prestige. The Company wanted to be careful not to annoy those people.
Growth of Revenue: Initially, the Company was just interested in collecting revenue so that its trade and other expenses could be financed. But the Company was not interested in setting up any regular system of assessment and collection. The revenue was enough to double the purchase by Company within five years.
Growth of Problems for Common People: But the Bengal economy was facing a deep crisis. Artisans were being forced to sell their goods to the Company at low prices and hence most of them were deserting their villages. Peasants were not able to pay the dues. Production by artisans declined and farm production also declined. In 1770, a terrible famine hit Bengal. It killed 10 million people.

Permanent Settlement

The Company had to take some steps to improve agriculture by improving investment in land. The Permanent Settlement was introduced in 1793. According to this, the rajas and taluqdars were recognized as zamindars and were given the responsibility of revenue collection from the peasants. The amount to be paid was fixed permanently and hence the name Permanent Settlement. The Company officials felt that it would ensure a regular flow of revenue. They also felt that this would motivate the zamindars to invest in improving the land. The zamindars would benefit from increased production because the revenue demand would not be increased.

The Problem of Permanent Settlement

The revenue was fixed at such a high level that the zamindars found it difficult to pay. A zamindar who failed to pay the revenue lost his zamindari. Hence, zamindars were not investing in the improvement of land.
But the situation changed by the first decade of the nineteenth century. There was price rise and expansion in cultivation. The income of the zamindars increased but it did not result in any gain for the Company because of fixed revenue demand.
The zamindars preferred to earn as much profit as they could and seldom bothered about investing in land. They were just happy to lease out the land to tenants.
The system was extremely oppressive for the cultivator. He had to pay a high rent to the zamindar but there was no security of his right on the land. Cultivator often had to take loan from the moneylender, to pay rent. Failure of payment of the rental meant eviction for the cultivator from the land.

Mahalwari Settlement

By the early nineteenth century, the Company officials were planning to change the revenue system. A new system was devised Holt Mackenzie. Mackenzie was convinced about the importance of village in the north Indian society. He wanted to preserve this important social institution. He sent collectors to different villages to take a survey. Data regarding land size and type and customs and rights of different groups were collected. The revenue estimation was done for each village. The village was known as mahal and hence this system was known as Mahalwari System. It was also decided to revise the revenue demand periodically. The village headman was given the responsibility of revenue collection. This system was first implemented in the villages of the North Western Provinces of the Bengal Presidency. Most of this area now comes under Uttar Pradesh.

The Munro System

This system was also known as the ryotwari system. It was first tried on a small scale by Captain Alexander Read. He tried it in some of those areas which were taken over after the defeat of Tipu Sultan. This system was subsequently developed by Thomas Munro. This system was gradually implemented all over south India.
There were no traditional zamindars in the south. Hence, the settlement had to be directly made with the cultivators (ryot). The ryots had been tilling the land for generations. Their fields were carefully surveyed to make the revenue assessment.

Problems of Excessive Revenue Demand

The revenue officials wanted to increase the income from land. Hence, they fixed very high revenue demand. Peasants were not able to pay the revenue. The ryots fled the countryside and villages became deserted in many regions.

Crops for Europe

By the late eighteenth century, the Company was also trying to expand the cultivation of opium and indigo. In the subsequent 150 years, the British also persuaded or forced the cultivators to produce other crops; like jute, tea, sugarcane, cotton, wheat and rice; to be supplied to Europe.

High Demand of Indigo

The tropical climate is good for indigo plantation. By the thirteenth century, Indian indigo was being used in Italy, France and Britain. But the price of indigo was very high and hence a small amount of Indian indigo could reach the European market.
Woad is another plant which is used for making violet and blue dyes. Wood is a plant of temperate zones and hence was easily available in Europe. Woad was grown in northern Italy, southern France and in parts of Germany and Britain. The woad producers in Europe were worried by the competition from indigo and hence pressurized their governments to ban the import of indigo.
But indigo was preferred by the cloth dyers. While indigo produced a rich blue colour, woad produced pale and dull blue. By the seventeenth century, European cloth producers pressurized their governments to relax the ban on indigo import.
Indigo cultivation was started by the French in St Dominique in the Caribbean islands. Similarly, the Portuguese began indigo cultivation in Brazil, the British in Jamaica and the Spanish in Venezuela. Indigo plantations were also started in many parts of North America.
By the end of the eighteenth century, industrialization began in Britain and cotton production expanded manifold. This created an enormous demand for cloth dyes. The existing supplies of indigo from the West Indies and America collapsed due to various reasons. The indigo production in the world fell by half between 1783 and 1789. This meant that there was increasing demand for Indian indigo.

India: A Major Source of Indigo

The Company looked for ways to expand the area under indigo cultivation in India. From the last decades of the eighteenth century, indigo cultivation in Bengal rapidly expanded. Only about 30% of indigo imported to Britain in 1788 was from India. This figure went up to 95% by 1810.
Commercial agents and officials of the Company began investing in indigo production to increase their profit. Many Company officials even left their jobs to look after their indigo business. Many people from Scotland and England came to India and became planters; to grab the opportunity. The Company and banks were giving loans for indigo cultivation at that time.

Ruling the Countryside

SYSTEMS OF INDIGO CULTIVATION:

Nij Cultivation:

In this system, the planter produced indigo on those lands which were under his direct control. The planter either bought the land or rented it from other zamindars. He directly employed labourers to produce indigo.

The problem with nij cultivation

Indigo could only be cultivated on fertile lands. But these areas were densely populated and hence, only small plots could be acquired. This made it difficult to expand the area under nij cultivation.
They attempted to lease in the land around the indigo factory. While doing so, they evicted the peasants from the area. Peasants’ eviction always created conflict and tension.
A large plantation required a large number of workers. Work at indigo plantation coincided with the time when peasants were busy with rice cultivation. Hence, mobilizing the labour for indigo cultivation was a difficult task.
Large scale nij cultivation also required many ploughs and bullocks. It was a big problem to bur and maintain the ploughs. Since the ploughs and bullocks of the peasants were busy in rice cultivation hence it was not possible to hire from them.
Till the late nineteenth century, planters were not willing to expand the area under nij cultivation; because of above mentioned problems. Less than 25% of the indigo cultivation was done under nij system.

Ryoti System

Under the ryoti system, indigo cultivation was done by the ryots. The planters made the ryots to sign a contract or an agreement (satta). Sometimes, they pressurized the village headmen to sign the contract on behalf of the ryots. After signing the contract, the ryots got cash advances from the planters. But after taking the loan, the ryot was committed to grow indigo on at least 25% of his land holding. Seeds and drills were provided by the planter. The cultivators prepared the soil, sowed the seed and looked after the crop.
But the planters bought indigo at low prices and hence the ryots were always in debt trap.

“Blue Rebellion”

Thousands of ryots in Bengal refused to grow indigo in March 1859. The ryots refused to pay rents to the planters. They attacked indigo factories. They used to be armed with swords and spears, bows and arrows. Women also fought with pots, panda and kitchen implements. Those who worked for the planters were socially boycotted. The gomasthas were beaten up when they came to collect rent. The gomasthas were the agents of indigo planters.
In many villages, headmen mobilized the indigo peasants against the lathiyals. The headmen were angry because they had been forced to sign indigo contract. Some zamindars were angry with the increasing power of the planters and at being forced to give them land on long leases. So, some zamindars also supported the villagers in their revolt against the indigo planters.
After the Revolt of 1857, the British government was worried about the possibility of another popular rebellion. When the news of indigo revolt spread, the Lieutenant Governor toured the region in the winter of 1859. This was seen as a sign of sympathy by the ryots. They began to believe that the British government would support them in their struggle.
When the rebellion spread, intellectuals from Calcutta rushed to the indigo districts. They began writing about the misery of the ryots and the horrors of the indigo system.
The government called in the military to protect the planters. The Indigo Commission was set up to enquire into the system of indigo production. The Commission held the planters guilty. It asked the ryots to fulfill their existing obligations and then they were free to cultivate whatever they wished.

After the Revolt

The indigo production collapsed in Bengal, after the revolt. The planters now shifted their operation to Bihar. Discovery of synthetic dyes in the late nineteenth century severely affected the business. But the planters managed to expand production. When Mahatma Gandhi returned from South Africa, the plight of indigo farmers in Champaran was brought to his notice. Mahatma Gandhi visted Champaran in 1917 and began the movement against the indigo planters.

1. Summary

On 12 August, 1765, the East India Company was granted the Diwani of Bengal and was now the chief financial administrator of Bengal. The company now had rights to collect revenues in Bengal.

Robert Clive, the governor of Bengal appointed native agencies who helped him collect the revenues on behalf of the Company. However, this system failed when Clive left India in 1767.

They hence forced the peasants to pay heavy dues as land taxes and forced artisans to sell their goods at very cheap rates. This drove the peasants and artisans away from their villages, which consequently led to a decline in the production of artisanal goods and agricultural crops. The economy of Bengal collapsed.

Bengal was struck by a terrible famine in 1770, which killed ten million people. The company therefore introduced many land revenue systems. In 1793, the Permanent Settlement system was introduced by Lord Cornwallis, the Governor-General of India.

Under this system, zamindars were given the responsibility of collecting rent from the peasants and in return paying revenue to the Company. This revenue would remain fixed throughout. However, the system failed.

Another system introduced by Captain Alexander Read was called the ryotwari. The system was further developed by Thomas Munro, the Governor of Madras and came to be known as the Munro system. In 1822, another revenue system called the ‘mahalwari’ system devised by Holt Mackenzie came into effect in the north western province of the Bengal Presidency. However, all the land revenue systems introduced by the company failed miserably.

Ruling the Countryside

NCERT Solution

Question – 1- Match the following:
Question – 2 - Fill in the blanks:
(a) Growers of woad in Europe saw __________ as a crop which would provide competition to their earnings.

Answer: Indigo

(b) The demand for indigo increased in late eighteenth- century Britain because of __________.

Answer: Increased cotton textiles production

(c) The international demand for indigo was affected by the discovery of __________.

Answer: Synthetic dyes

(d) The Champaran movement was against __________.

Answer: Indigo planters

Question – 3 - Describe the main features of the Permanent Settlement.

Answer: According to the Permanent, the rajas and taluqdars were recognized as zamindars and were given the responsibility of revenue collection from the peasants. The amount to be paid was fixed permanently and hence the name Permanent Settlement.

Question – 4 - How was the mahalwari system different from the Permanent Settlement?

Answer:

Question – 5 - Give two problems which arose with the new Munro system of fixing revenue.

Answer: The revenue officials wanted to increase the income from land. Hence, they fixed very high revenue demand. Peasants were not able to pay the revenue. The ryots fled the countryside and villages became deserted in many regions.

Question – 6 - Why were ryots reluctant to grow indigo?

Answer: The planters paid a very low price for indigo. The ryot was not in a position to even recover his cost, earning a profit was a far-fetched idea. This meant that the ryot was always under debt. Hence, the ryots were reluctant to grow indigo.

Question – 7 - What were the circumstances which led to the eventual collapse of indigo production in Bengal?

Answer: The ryots began to refuse to grow indigo. They were supported by the village headmen and some zamindars in their fight. The scale of protest was so much that the government had to intervene. The Indigo Commission of set up to enquire into the problems. The Commission accepted the faults of the planters and allowed the ryots to grow whatever they wished. This led to eventual collapse of indigo production in Bengal.

Class 8 Science Force and Pressure Notes and Solutions

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Force and Pressure

 

Force

A pull or push over an object is called force.
Example – to open a drawer, one has to pull it; and to close the drawer one has to push it. Thus, in both the conditions a person applies force by pull or push.
To kick a ball, one has to push it, i.e. a force is applied.
To ride a bicycle one has to push the pedal. In this condition, force is applied while pushing the pedal.
Forces are due an interaction:
To apply a force over an object interaction between object and source of force is necessary.
Example –
To open a drawer one has to pull by holding it, drawer will not open otherwise .
To kick a ball one has to touch it, otherwise force will not be applied over the ball.

Direction and Magnitude of Force:

The measure of amount or strength of force is called the magnitude of force. Thus, strength or amount of force is expressed in terms of magnitude.

Condition when more than two forces are applied over an object:

Forces applied in same direction:

When more than one force is applied in the same direction, the total force is the magnitude of both the forces.
Example – It is difficult to push a car by single person, but two or more persons can collectively push the same car easily. This is because when more than one person tries to push the car, magnitudes of forces applied by each of the person are summed up and applied over than car, and car is pushed easily because of greater magnitude of force.
That means if three units of force are applied over an object by each of the two persons,
The total unit of force = sum of both forces = 3 unit + 3 unit = 6 unit

Forces applied in opposite direction:

When two forces are applied over an object from opposite directions, the total effective force is the difference of two forces.

Example –

(a) When two persons are pushing a box in opposite directions and the magnitude of both the forces is equal, then box will not move, because the difference of two forces will be equal to zero.
Let a person applying 4 unit of force in one direction and other person is also applying 4 unit of force in opposite direction on the same wooden box.
Therefore, the magnitude of total force = 4 unit – 4 unit = 0
(b) If one person is applying a force of 4 unit in one direction and another person is applying a force of 6 unit in opposite direction,
Then total magnitude of force = 6 unit – 4 unit = 2 unit
Thus, force will act in the direction of larger magnitude of force.

Force can change the state of motion:

State of rest:

An object is called in the state of rest when it is not moving. This means a stationary object is called in the state of rest. For example – a building, an electric pole, a ball kept over the ground and not moving, etc.

State of motion:

A moving object is called in the state of motion. For example – a moving car, a moving ball, etc.
A force can speed up a moving object. Force can decrease the speed of a moving object. Force can stop a moving object. Force can change the direction of a moving object. Force can move a stationary object.

Example –

In the game of cricket, when a batsman pushes a fast moving ball in the same direction of the movement of ball, the speed of the ball is increased.
When a batsman pushes a fast moving ball in the opposite direction the speed of ball decreases; because of force being applied from his bat.
When a player in the game of football kicks the ball to his mate, he changes the direction of the moving football by applying force through his kick.
A goalkeeper stops the football going towards the goal post by applying a force by his hand.

Force can change the shape of an object:

When you apply force on an inflated balloon; using your hand from both sides, the force of pressure changes the shape of balloon.
You mom change the shape of dough into a bread by applying force with a rolling pin.
A blacksmith changes the shape of an iron rod by applying force using a hammer.
When a rubber band is stretched in opposite directions, its shape is changed.

Force and Pressure

Kinds of Force

Contact Force

Force that comes into action after the interaction between objects is called contact force. Contact force acts on the point of contact. For contact force; interaction between objects is necessary. Example; pushing a car, opening a drawer, kicking a ball, etc. In these examples, interaction between objects is necessary.
Muscular force, force of friction, etc. are types of contact force.

Muscular Force: -

Force caused by the action of muscles is called muscular force. In other words, force resulting because of action of muscle is called muscular force. Muscular force is applied only after interaction with the object. Hence it is a type of contact force.

Example : –

While kicking a ball, the player applies force over the ball using his leg muscles.
While opening a drawer, you pull the drawer holding it by hand. In this action, muscles of your hand apply the force.
While pulling a cart, the horse or the ox applies the force of its muscles.

Friction:

Force acting between the surfaces of two objects is called the force of friction. Force of friction always acts in the opposite direction of the movement of object. Force of friction is acting over all the moving objects.

Example -

A moving football stops after going to a certain distance. This happens because of force of friction between the surface of ground and the surface of football.
A moving boat stops after some distance because of friction between the surface of water and the surface of boat.
Since force of friction comes into action only after interaction between two objects, thus, it is a type of contact force.

Non – contact Force

Force that comes into action without interaction between two objects is called non-contact force. For example; a magnet can pull an iron nail from a distance.
Magnetic force, Electrostatic force and Gravitational force are examples of non-contact force.

Magnetic Force:

Force exerted by a magnet on another magnet or on magnetic substances is called magnetic force. A magnet can exert force even without coming in contact, thus it is a non-contact force.
Example – A magnet attracts the opposite pole of another magnet and repels the similar pole of another magnet.

Electrostatic Force:

Force exerted by a charged body is called electrostatic force. A charged body attracts an uncharged body. A positively charged body attracts a negatively charged body and repels a positively charged body without coming in contact, thus it is a non-contact force.

Gravitational Force:

Force exerted by earth, moon, sun and other planets is called gravitational force. Earth attracts all objects towards it. Similarly, all other planets along with moon attract all objects towards them. Since, earth attracts all objects even without coming in contact, thus gravitational force is a non-contact force.

Example –

When anything is released from a height, it falls over the ground because of gravitational pull of earth.

Pressure:

A force applied over the unit area of a surface is called pressure. In other words, force per unit area is called pressure.
Pressure = Force / Area
In this case, area is indirectly proportional to the pressure, thus pressure decreases with increase in area and increases with decrease in area.

Example:

While cutting an apple, we need to use the sharp edge of the knife. Using the blunt edge of knife shall not serve the purpose. The blunt edge of knife has larger surface area than the sharp edge. Because of smaller surface area; more pressure can be applied through the sharp edge of the knife and something can be easily cut.
While putting a nail into a wooden board, the pointed end of the nail is kept at the front. The pointed end of the nail has very small surface area and this enables us to apply a greater pressure with the applied force.
School bags have broad shoulder straps. Because of broad shoulder straps, the pressure because of the weight of the school bag is distributed over a larger area and it becomes easier to carry the bag.

Pressure exerted by Liquid and Gas

Similar to solid, liquid and gas also exert pressure. Liquid and gas exert pressure on inner walls of the container in which they are kept.

Example –

Water starts leaking if there is a pore in the bottle. This happens because water exerts pressure over the walls of the bottle.
Water flows from higher level to lower level of the ground. This happens because of pressure exerted by water.
When air is filled, a rubber balloon gets inflated from all sides. This happens because air, which is a gas, exerts pressure over inner walls of the balloon.

Atmospheric Pressure:

Our atmosphere is made of air. Since air is mixture of gases and gas exerts pressure, thus air exerts pressure. Pressure exerted by air (present in atmosphere) is called atmospheric pressure.
Atmosphere of 10cm X 10cm X 10cm exerts about 1000 kg of pressure.
We do not feel the atmospheric pressure over us because the pressure inside our body nullifies the atmospheric pressure.

Example –

A pressed rubber sucker on a plane surface does not come off because of atmospheric pressure.
When you go to hills and mountains, it is difficult to breather. This happens because of low atmospheric pressure.
The ink of a fountain pen spills out in aero plane, because of low pressure at higher altitude.
At higher altitude, lentils (pulses) take longer to get cooked. This happens because of low atmospheric pressure at higher altitude. Because of low atmospheric pressure, water boils at a lower temperature and that temperature is not enough for cooking the pulses.

Important terms

Force - A pull or push over an object is called force.
Magnitude of Force: Strength or amount of force is expressed in terms of magnitude.
Contact Force: Force that comes into action after the interaction between objects is called contact force.
Muscular Force: Force caused by the action of muscles is called muscular force.
Friction: Force acting between the surfaces of two objects is called force of friction.
Non – contact Force: Force that comes into action without interaction between two objects is called non-contact force.
Magnetic Force: Force exerted by a magnet on other magnet or on magnetic substances is called magnetic force.
Electrostatic Force: Force exerted by a charged body is called electrostatic force.
Gravitational Force: Force exerted by earth, moon, sun and other planets to pull an object towards them, is called gravitational force.
Pressure: A force applied over the unit area of a surface is called pressure.
Atmospheric Pressure: Pressure exerted by air present in atmosphere is called atmospheric pressure.

Force and Pressure

Kinds of Force

Contact Force

Force that comes into action after the interaction between objects is called contact force. Contact force acts on the point of contact. For contact force; interaction between objects is necessary. Example; pushing a car, opening a drawer, kicking a ball, etc. In these examples, interaction between objects is necessary.
Muscular force, force of friction, etc. are types of contact force.

Muscular Force: -

Force caused by the action of muscles is called muscular force. In other words, force resulting because of action of muscle is called muscular force. Muscular force is applied only after interaction with the object. Hence it is a type of contact force.

Example : –

While kicking a ball, the player applies force over the ball using his leg muscles.
While opening a drawer, you pull the drawer holding it by hand. In this action, muscles of your hand apply the force.
While pulling a cart, the horse or the ox applies the force of its muscles.

Friction:

Force acting between the surfaces of two objects is called the force of friction. Force of friction always acts in the opposite direction of the movement of object. Force of friction is acting over all the moving objects.

Example -

A moving football stops after going to a certain distance. This happens because of force of friction between the surface of ground and the surface of football.
A moving boat stops after some distance because of friction between the surface of water and the surface of boat.
Since force of friction comes into action only after interaction between two objects, thus, it is a type of contact force.

Non – contact Force

Force that comes into action without interaction between two objects is called non-contact force. For example; a magnet can pull an iron nail from a distance.
Magnetic force, Electrostatic force and Gravitational force are examples of non-contact force.

Magnetic Force:

Force exerted by a magnet on another magnet or on magnetic substances is called magnetic force. A magnet can exert force even without coming in contact, thus it is a non-contact force.
Example – A magnet attracts the opposite pole of another magnet and repels the similar pole of another magnet.

Electrostatic Force:

Force exerted by a charged body is called electrostatic force. A charged body attracts an uncharged body. A positively charged body attracts a negatively charged body and repels a positively charged body without coming in contact, thus it is a non-contact force.

Gravitational Force:

Force exerted by earth, moon, sun and other planets is called gravitational force. Earth attracts all objects towards it. Similarly, all other planets along with moon attract all objects towards them. Since, earth attracts all objects even without coming in contact, thus gravitational force is a non-contact force.

Example –

When anything is released from a height, it falls over the ground because of gravitational pull of earth.

Pressure:

A force applied over the unit area of a surface is called pressure. In other words, force per unit area is called pressure.
Pressure = Force / Area
In this case, area is indirectly proportional to the pressure, thus pressure decreases with increase in area and increases with decrease in area.

Example:

While cutting an apple, we need to use the sharp edge of the knife. Using the blunt edge of knife shall not serve the purpose. The blunt edge of knife has larger surface area than the sharp edge. Because of smaller surface area; more pressure can be applied through the sharp edge of the knife and something can be easily cut.
While putting a nail into a wooden board, the pointed end of the nail is kept at the front. The pointed end of the nail has very small surface area and this enables us to apply a greater pressure with the applied force.
School bags have broad shoulder straps. Because of broad shoulder straps, the pressure because of the weight of the school bag is distributed over a larger area and it becomes easier to carry the bag.

Pressure exerted by Liquid and Gas

Similar to solid, liquid and gas also exert pressure. Liquid and gas exert pressure on inner walls of the container in which they are kept.

Example –

Water starts leaking if there is a pore in the bottle. This happens because water exerts pressure over the walls of the bottle.
Water flows from higher level to lower level of the ground. This happens because of pressure exerted by water.
When air is filled, a rubber balloon gets inflated from all sides. This happens because air, which is a gas, exerts pressure over inner walls of the balloon.

Atmospheric Pressure:

Our atmosphere is made of air. Since air is mixture of gases and gas exerts pressure, thus air exerts pressure. Pressure exerted by air (present in atmosphere) is called atmospheric pressure.
Atmosphere of 10cm X 10cm X 10cm exerts about 1000 kg of pressure.
We do not feel the atmospheric pressure over us because the pressure inside our body nullifies the atmospheric pressure.

Example –

A pressed rubber sucker on a plane surface does not come off because of atmospheric pressure.
When you go to hills and mountains, it is difficult to breather. This happens because of low atmospheric pressure.
The ink of a fountain pen spills out in aero plane, because of low pressure at higher altitude.
At higher altitude, lentils (pulses) take longer to get cooked. This happens because of low atmospheric pressure at higher altitude. Because of low atmospheric pressure, water boils at a lower temperature and that temperature is not enough for cooking the pulses.

Important terms

Force - A pull or push over an object is called force.
Magnitude of Force: Strength or amount of force is expressed in terms of magnitude.
Contact Force: Force that comes into action after the interaction between objects is called contact force.
Muscular Force: Force caused by the action of muscles is called muscular force.
Friction: Force acting between the surfaces of two objects is called force of friction.
Non – contact Force: Force that comes into action without interaction between two objects is called non-contact force.
Magnetic Force: Force exerted by a magnet on other magnet or on magnetic substances is called magnetic force.
Electrostatic Force: Force exerted by a charged body is called electrostatic force.
Gravitational Force: Force exerted by earth, moon, sun and other planets to pull an object towards them, is called gravitational force.
Pressure: A force applied over the unit area of a surface is called pressure.
Atmospheric Pressure: Pressure exerted by air present in atmosphere is called atmospheric pressure.

Force and Pressure

Solution of NCERT Exercise

Question: 1. Give two examples each of situations in which you push or pull to change the state of motion of objects.

Answer: -

Push: -

To close a drawer.

To move a wooden box on floor.

Pull:

To open a drawer

A horse pulling a cart.

Question: 2. Give two examples of situations in which applied force causes a change in the shape of an object.

Answer:

Making of bread from dough

Stretching of a rubber band.

Question: 3. Fill in the blanks in the following statements:
(a) To draw water from a well we have to ——— at the rope.

Answer: Pull

(b) A charged body ———— an uncharged body towards it.

Answer: Attracts

(c) To move a loaded trolley we have to ———— it.

Answer: Push or Pull

(d) The north pole of a magnet ———— the north pole of another magnet.

Answer: repels

Question: 4. An archer stretches her bow while taking aim at the target. She then releases the arrow, which begins to move towards the target. Based on this information fill up the gaps in the following statements using the following terms:
muscular, contact, non-contact, gravity, friction, shape, attraction
(a) To stretch the bow, the archer applies a force that causes a change in its ________.

Answer: Shape

(b) The force applied by the archer to stretch the bow is an example of — —— force.

Answer: Muscular

(c) The type of force responsible for a change in the state of motion of the arrow is an example of a ———— force.

Answer: Contact

(d) While the arrow moves towards its target, the forces acting on it are due to ———— and that due to ———— of air.

Answer: gravity, friction

Question: 5. In the following situations identify the agent exerting the force and the object on which it acts. State the effect of the force in each case.
(a) Squeezing a piece of lemon between the fingers to extract its juice.

Answer:

Agent exerting the force – Fingers

Object on which force acts – Lemon

Effect of force – Change in shape of lemon

(b) Taking out paste from a toothpaste tube.

Answer:

Agent exerting the force – Fingers

Object on which force acts – toothpaste tube

Effect of force – Change in shape of toothpaste tube.

(c) A load suspended from a spring while its other end is on a hook fixed to a wall.

Answer:

Agent exerting the force – Load

Object on which force acts – Spring

Effect of force – Change in shape of spring.

(d) An athlete making a high jump to clear the bar at a certain height.

Answer:

Agent exerting the force – Muscles of Athlete

Object on which force acts – Athlete

Effect of force – Change of state of motion of athlete

Question: 6. A blacksmith hammers a hot piece of iron while making a tool. How does the force due to hammering affect the piece of iron?

Answer:

Force due to hammering changes the shape of the piece of iron.

Question: 7. An inflated balloon was pressed against a wall after it has been rubbed with a piece of synthetic cloth. It was found that the balloon sticks to the wall. What force might be responsible for the attraction between the balloon and the wall?

Answer: Electrostatic force

Question: 8. Name the forces acting on a plastic bucket containing water held above ground level in your hand. Discuss why the forces acting on the bucket do not bring a change in its state of motion.

Answer: In this case, muscular force is acting in upward direction and the force of gravity is acting in downward direction. Both forces are acting in opposite directions to each other and hence nullify the effect of each other. Due to this, there is no change in the state of motion of the bucket.

Question: 9. A rocket has been fired upwards to launch a satellite in its orbit. Name the two forces acting on the rocket immediately after leaving the launching pad.

Answer: Gravitational force and atmospheric pressure.

Question: 10. When we press the bulb of a dropper with its nozzle kept in water, air in the dropper is seen to escape in the form of bubbles. Once we release the pressure on the bulb, water gets filled in the dropper. The rise of water in the dropper is due to
(a) pressure of water
(b) gravity of the earth
(c) shape of rubber bulb
(d) atmospheric pressure

Answer: (d) Atmospheric pressure